Beyond Screens and Earphones: Emotional Regulation, Social Connectedness, and Academic Engagement Among University Students
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65655/openchristianpress.131Keywords:
Earphone overuse, Screen exposure, Emotional regulation, Social connectedness, Academic engagement, University students, Digital well-beingAbstract
Background: The rapid expansion of digital technologies in higher education has transformed how university students learn, communicate, and participate socially. However, prolonged non-academic screen exposure and extensive earphone use have been associated with emotional dysregulation, social disconnection, reduced classroom participation, and weaker academic engagement.
Purpose: This study examined relationships among screen exposure, earphone overuse behaviors, emotional regulation, social connectedness, and academic engagement among university students.
Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional design was used with 742 undergraduate and postgraduate students from four East African universities. Data were collected using self-report instruments assessing earphone overuse, screen exposure behavior, emotional regulation, social connectedness, and academic engagement. Analyses included descriptive statistics, Pearson correlations, multiple regression, and structural equation modeling (SEM).
Results: Findings indicated that 68.4% of participants reported using earphones for more than five hours daily, and 74.1% reported non-academic screen exposure exceeding six hours per day. Earphone overuse and screen exposure were negatively correlated with emotional regulation (r = −.53 and r = −.49, respectively, p < .001), social connectedness (r = −.46 and r = −.44, respectively, p < .001), and academic engagement (r = −.42 and r = −.47, respectively, p < .001). Emotional regulation positively predicted social connectedness (β = .54, p < .001) and academic engagement (β = .45, p < .001). SEM findings indicated that emotional regulation partially mediated relationships between technology-related behaviors and both social connectedness and academic engagement. The structural model demonstrated satisfactory fit indices (CFI = .96, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .052, SRMR = .041).
Conclusion: Excessive earphone use and prolonged screen exposure may be linked to poorer emotional well-being, weaker interpersonal connectedness, and lower academic participation among university students. Emotional regulation emerged as a key psychosocial pathway linking technology-related behaviors to student adjustment outcomes. Universities should integrate digital well-being education, emotional regulation training, and social connectedness initiatives into student wellness and academic support programs to promote healthier and more balanced learning environments.
References
Abi-Jaoude, E., Naylor, K. T., & Pignatiello, A. (2020). Smartphones, social media use and youth mental health. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 192(6), E136–E141. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.190434
Alshaikh, A. A., AlAmri, A. M., Albraik, M. A., Amer, K. A. N., Alqahtani, A. A. A., Almugharrid, R. M. S., Alzuhari, A. M. S., Alshahrani, O. M. O., & Mahmood, S. E. (2025). The association between headphone use during study and concentration among medical students at King Khalid University: A cross-sectional study. Medicine, 104(8), e41655. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000041655
Al-Zahrani, A. M. (2025). Exploring the impact of artificial intelligence chatbots on human connection and emotional support among higher education students. SAGE Open, 15(2), 21582440251340615. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251340615
Andersson, M. (2025). Companionship in code: AI’s role in the future of human connection. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1), 1177. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05536-x
Arghode, V., & Nafukho, F. M. (2025). Emotionally intelligent and ethically grounded AI: Reimagining learning and development in the digital age. European Journal of Training and Development. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-04-2025-0072
Azpiazu, L., Fernández-Zabala, A., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., & Ramos-Díaz, E. (2023). Perceived emotional intelligence and subjective well-being during adolescence: The moderating effect of age and sex. Current Psychology, 42(35), 31048–31063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04128-1
Bekele, T. A., Amponsah, S., & Karkouti, I. M. (2023). African philosophy for successful integration of technology in higher education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 54(6), 1520–1538. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13364
Bertsia, V., & Poulou, M. (2023). Resilience: Theoretical framework and implications for school. International Education Studies, 16(2), 1. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v16n2p1
Bond, M., Bedenlier, S., Marín, V. I., & Händel, M. (2021). Emergency remote teaching in higher education: Mapping the first global online semester. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 18(1), 50. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00282-x
Dushimimana, F., & Nkurunziza, A. (2026). Artificial intelligence and intimacy development in university students: A gender-based systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Psychology Research, 8(2), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.33545/26648903.2026.v8.i2a.141
Elhai, J. D., Yang, H., Rozgonjuk, D., & Montag, C. (2020). Using machine learning to model problematic smartphone use severity: The significant role of fear of missing out. Addictive Behaviors, 103, 106261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106261
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
Janssen, X., Martin, A., Hughes, A. R., Hill, C. M., Kotronoulas, G., & Hesketh, K. R. (2020). Associations of screen time, sedentary time and physical activity with sleep in under 5s: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 49, 101226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2019.101226
Kardefelt‐Winther, D., Rees, G., & Livingstone, S. (2020). Contextualising the link between adolescents’ use of digital technology and their mental health: A multi‐country study of time spent online and life satisfaction. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(8), 875–889. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13280
Kaur, G., Anand, A., Chakraborty, P., Pravin, T., Khalilullah, M., Tarafdar, R., Raj, D., & Mukherjee, S. (2025). Use of headphones and its impact on hearing: A cross-sectional survey of medical, nursing, and pharmacy students. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.96900
Kaur, N., Gupta, M., Kiran, T., Malhi, P., & Grover, S. (2021). Development and evaluation of the digital-screen exposure questionnaire (DSEQ) for young children. PLOS ONE, 16(6), e0253313. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253313
Keles, B., McCrae, N., & Grealish, A. (2020). A systematic review: The influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 79–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851
Kirk, H. R., Gabriel, I., Summerfield, C., Vidgen, B., & Hale, S. A. (2025). Why human–AI relationships need socioaffective alignment. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1), 728. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04532-5
Korkmaz, M., & Tek Ayaz, S. (2024). Development of the evaluating the screen exposure of adolescents (ESEA) scale: A validation and reliability study. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 78, e213–e218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2024.07.008
Lee, R. M., & Robbins, S. B. (1995). Measuring belongingness: The Social Connectedness and the Social Assurance scales. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(2), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.42.2.232
Malfacini, K. (2025). The impacts of companion AI on human relationships: Risks, benefits, and design considerations. AI & SOCIETY, 40(7), 5527–5540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-025-02318-6
Marengo, D., Sindermann, C., Elhai, J. D., & Montag, C. (2020). One social media company to rule them all: Associations between use of Facebook-owned social media platforms, sociodemographic characteristics, and the Big Five personality traits. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 936. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00936
Montag, C., & Hegelich, S. (2020). Understanding detrimental aspects of social media use: Will the real culprits please stand up? Frontiers in Sociology, 5, 599270. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2020.599270
Odgers, C. L., & Jensen, M. R. (2020). Annual Research Review: Adolescent mental health in the digital age: facts, fears, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(3), 336–348. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13190
O’Donnell, K., & Reschly, A. L. (2020). Assessment of Student Engagement. In A. L. Reschly, A. J. Pohl, & S. L. Christenson (Eds.), Student Engagement (pp. 55–76). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37285-9_3
Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(2), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1
Scott, H., Biello, S. M., & Woods, H. C. (2019). Social media use and adolescent sleep patterns: Cross-sectional findings from the UK millennium cohort study. BMJ Open, 9(9), e031161. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-031161
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2018). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive Medicine Reports, 12, 271–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2018.10.003
Valkenburg, P. M., Meier, A., & Beyens, I. (2022). Social media use and its impact on adolescent mental health: An umbrella review of the evidence. Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.017
Zhang, Q., Zhang, R., Xiong, Y., Sui, Y., Tong, C., & Lin, F.-H. (2025). Generative AI mental health chatbots as therapeutic tools: Systematic review and meta-analysis of their role in reducing mental health issues. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 27, e78238. https://doi.org/10.2196/78238
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Father Prof. Fidèle Dushimimana, Prof. Sixbert Sangwa, Dr Alphonse NKURUNZIZA (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
