Christian Formation at Work: Scripture, Science, Spiritual Experience, and Ethical Vocation in African Contexts

Authors

  • Sixbert SANGWA African Leadership University Author

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.65655/ocp.ojbt.159

Abstract

Workplace spirituality research increasingly recognizes religion as a source of identity and ethical motivation, yet generic constructs of spirituality leave unresolved how tradition-specific norms should govern contested spiritual experience. This article develops a Scripture-governed account of Christian formation for African workplaces through an integrative review, a bounded OpenAlex evidence map (142 records; 24 core records), biblical-theological analysis, and contextual ethical synthesis. It distinguishes theological normativity from fallible experience, cultural interpretation, and empirically tractable mechanisms. In dialogue with psychology, anthropology, organizational studies, labor data, and debates about methodological naturalism, the article argues that Christian formation should neither reduce spiritual claims to naturalistic explanations nor treat dreams, witchcraft attributions, prosperity, or suffering as self-authenticating revelation. The proposed Scripture-Governed Formation-at-Work model integrates four constraints: normative asymmetry, causal humility, ethical externality, and non-instrumentality. Together they order vocation toward truthful discernment, neighbor-love, worker dignity, justice, contentment, and Christlike faithfulness.

References

Agbiji, Obaji M., and Ignatius Swart. 2015. “Religion and Social Transformation in Africa: A Critical and Appreciative Perspective.” Scriptura 114: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.7833/114-0-1115.

Astrachan, Joseph H., Claudia Binz Astrachan, Giovanna Campopiano, and Massimo Baù. 2020. “Values, Spirituality and Religion: Family Business and the Roots of Sustainable Ethical Behavior.” Journal of Business Ethics 163 (4): 637–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04392-5.

Berger, Peter L. 2014. The Many Altars of Modernity: Toward a Paradigm for Religion in a Pluralist Age. Boston, MA: De Gruyter.

Bowler, Kate. 2013. Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Dik, Bryan J., Denise Daniels, and Alexandra Alayan. 2024. “Religion, Spirituality, and the Workplace: A Review and Critique.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 11: 279–305. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-041458.

Eva, Nathan, Mulyadi Robin, Sen Sendjaya, Dirk van Dierendonck, and Robert C. Liden. 2019. “Servant Leadership: A Systematic Review and Call for Future Research.” The Leadership Quarterly 30 (1): 111–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.07.004.

Héliot, YingFei, Ilka H. Gleibs, Adrian Coyle, Denise M. Rousseau, and Céline Rojon. 2020. “Religious Identity in the Workplace: A Systematic Review, Research Agenda, and Practical Implications.” Human Resource Management 59 (2): 153–73. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21983.

Henley, Andrew. 2017. “Does Religion Influence Entrepreneurial Behaviour?” International Small Business Journal 35 (5): 597–617. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242616656748.

Heuser, Andreas, ed. 2015. Pastures of Plenty: Tracing Religio-Scapes of Prosperity Gospel in Africa and Beyond. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-05822-2.

Kessler, Volker. 2017. “‘Visionaries … Psychiatric Wards Are Full of Them’: Religious Terms in Management Literature.” Verbum et Ecclesia 38 (2): a1649. https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v38i2.1649.

Klinzing, Jens G., Niels Niethard, and Jan Born. 2019. “Mechanisms of Systems Memory Consolidation during Sleep.” Nature Neuroscience 22: 1598–1610. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0467-3.

Kretzschmar, Louise. 2020. “African and Western Approaches to the Moral Formation of Christian Leaders: The Role of Spiritual Disciplines in Counteracting Moral Deficiencies.” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 76 (2): a5913. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v76i2.5913.

Kristensen, Mette Lund. 2018. “Mindfulness and Resonance in an Era of Acceleration: A Critical Inquiry.” Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion 15 (2): 178–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2017.1418413.

Kushlev, Kostadin, Jason Proulx, and Elizabeth W. Dunn. 2016. “‘Silence Your Phones’: Smartphone Notifications Increase Inattention and Hyperactivity Symptoms.” In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1011–20. New York: ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858359.

Lahmar, Hakim, Farid Chaouki, and Florence Rodhain. 2025. “In Search of a Consensual Definition of Organizational Spirituality: A Systematic Literature Review and Validation with Managers.” Human Systems Management 44 (1): 20–35. https://doi.org/10.3233/HSM-230141.

Leavey, Gerard, Kate Miriam Loewenthal, and Michael King. 2016. “Locating the Social Origins of Mental Illness: The Explanatory Models of Mental Illness among Clergy from Different Ethnic and Faith Backgrounds.” Journal of Religion and Health 55 (5): 1607–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0191-1.

Lifshitz, Michael, Michiel van Elk, and T. M. Luhrmann. 2019. “Absorption and Spiritual Experience: A Review of Evidence and Potential Mechanisms.” Consciousness and Cognition 73: 102760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2019.05.008.

Maidl, Lydia, Ann-Kathrin Seemann, Eckhard Frick, Harald Gündel, and Piret Paal. 2022. “Leveraging Spirituality and Religion in European For-Profit Organizations: A Systematic Review.” Humanistic Management Journal 7: 23–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41463-021-00110-4.

Marshall, Ruth. 2016. “Destroying Arguments and Captivating Thoughts: Spiritual Warfare Prayer as Global Praxis.” Journal of Religious and Political Practice 2 (1): 92–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/20566093.2016.1085243.

Mashau, Thinandavha D. 2016. “Moving to Different Streams of Healing Praxis: A Reformed Missionary Approach of Healing in the African Context.” Verbum et Ecclesia 37 (1): a1508. https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v37i1.1508.

Mashau, Thinandavha D., and Mookgo Solomon Kgatle. 2019. “Prosperity Gospel and the Culture of Greed in Post-Colonial Africa: Constructing an Alternative African Christian Theology of Ubuntu.” Verbum et Ecclesia 40 (1): a1901. https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v40i1.1901.

McGhee, Peter. 2019. “Integrating Christian Spirituality at Work: Combining Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches.” Religions 10 (7): 433. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070433.

Melé, Domènec. 2016. “Understanding Humanistic Management.” Humanistic Management Journal 1 (1): 33–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41463-016-0011-5.

Melé, Domènec, and Joan Fontrodona. 2017. “Christian Ethics and Spirituality in Leading Business Organizations: Editorial Introduction.” Journal of Business Ethics 145 (4): 671–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3323-3.

National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR). 2025a. Labour Force Survey Annual Report 2024. Kigali: NISR. https://statistics.gov.rw/data-sources/surveys/Labour-Force-Survey/labour-force-survey-2024/labour-force-survey-annual-report-2024.

National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR). 2026a. Labour Force Survey Annual Report 2025. Kigali: NISR. https://statistics.gov.rw/data-sources/surveys/Labour-Force-Survey/labour-force-survey-2025/labour-force-survey-annual-report-2025.

National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR). 2026b. Labour Force Survey 2026, Quarter 2. Kigali: NISR. https://statistics.gov.rw/data-sources/surveys/Labour-Force-Survey/labour-force-survey-2026/labour-force-survey-2026-q2.

Ng, Emily. 2020. “The Mind and the Devil: Porosity and Discernment in Two Chinese Charismatic-Style Churches.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 26 (1): 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9655.13243.

Nicolaides, Angelo. 2020. “Contemplating Christian Ethics and Spirituality for Sound Leadership in Organisations.” Pharos Journal of Theology 101: a37. https://hdl.handle.net/10500/26703.

O’Donnell, Aislinn. 2015. “Contemplative Pedagogy and Mindfulness: Developing Creative Attention in an Age of Distraction.” Journal of Philosophy of Education 49 (2): 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12136.

Page, Matthew J., Joanne E. McKenzie, Patrick M. Bossuyt, Isabelle Boutron, Tammy C. Hoffmann, Cynthia D. Mulrow, Larissa Shamseer, et al. 2021. “The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews.” BMJ 372: n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71.

Perry, John, and Sarah Lane Ritchie. 2018. “Magnets, Magic, and Other Anomalies: In Defense of Methodological Naturalism.” Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science 53 (4): 1064–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/zygo.12473.

Priem, Jason, Heather Piwowar, and Richard Orr. 2022. “OpenAlex: A Fully-Open Index of Scholarly Works, Authors, Venues, Institutions, and Concepts.” arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2205.01833.

Read, Ursula M. 2019. “Rights as Relationships: Collaborating with Faith Healers in Community Mental Health in Ghana.” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 43 (4): 613–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-019-09648-3.

Rietveld, Cornelius A., and Brigitte Hoogendoorn. 2022. “The Mediating Role of Values in the Relationship between Religion and Entrepreneurship.” Small Business Economics 58 (3): 1309–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-021-00454-z.

Rio, Knut, Michelle MacCarthy, and Ruy Blanes, eds. 2017. Pentecostalism and Witchcraft: Spiritual Warfare in Africa and Melanesia. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56068-7.

Slater, Jennifer. 2018. “The Christian Ethic of Inclusive Leadership within Diastratic Diversity: Employing Liminality as an Analytical Tool.” Koers: Bulletin for Christian Scholarship 83 (1): a2320. https://doi.org/10.19108/KOERS.83.1.2320.

Smith, Brett R., Jeffery S. McMullen, and Melissa S. Cardon. 2021. “Toward a Theological Turn in Entrepreneurship: How Religion Could Enable Transformative Research in Our Field.” Journal of Business Venturing 36 (5): 106139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2021.106139.

Snyder, Hannah. 2019. “Literature Review as a Research Methodology: An Overview and Guidelines.” Journal of Business Research 104: 333–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039.

Tanner, Kathryn. 2019. Christianity and the New Spirit of Capitalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Taylor, Charles. 2007. A Secular Age. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Thompson, Jeffery A., and J. Stuart Bunderson. 2019. “Research on Work as a Calling … and How to Make It Matter.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 6: 421–43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012218-015140.

Torrance, Andrew B. 2017. “Should a Christian Adopt Methodological Naturalism?” Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science 52 (3): 691–725. https://doi.org/10.1111/zygo.12363.

Torrance, Andrew B. 2018. “The Possibility of a Theology-Engaged Science: A Response to Perry and Ritchie.” Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science 53 (4): 1094–1105. https://doi.org/10.1111/zygo.12475.

Volf, Miroslav. 1991. Work in the Spirit: Toward a Theology of Work. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Walter, Yoshija. 2024. “The Digital Transformation in the Psychology of Workplace Spirituality.” Digital Transformation and Society 3 (1): 23–49. https://doi.org/10.1108/DTS-01-2023-0008.

Whittemore, Robin, and Kathleen Knafl. 2005. “The Integrative Review: Updated Methodology.” Journal of Advanced Nursing 52 (5): 546–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x.

Williams, James. 2018. Stand Out of Our Light: Freedom and Resistance in the Attention Economy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Yoder, Hélène N. C., Joop T. V. M. de Jong, Wietse A. Tol, Joshua A. Duncan, Amjata Bayoh, and Ria Reis. 2021. “Child Witchcraft Confessions as an Idiom of Distress in Sierra Leone: Results of a Rapid Qualitative Inquiry and Recommendations for Mental Health Interventions.” Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health 15: 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00370-w.

Downloads

Published

2026-09-10

Issue

Section

Articles

How to Cite

SANGWA, S. (2026). Christian Formation at Work: Scripture, Science, Spiritual Experience, and Ethical Vocation in African Contexts. Open Journal of Business Theology (ISSN : 2788-709X), 6(3). https://doi.org/10.65655/ocp.ojbt.159

Most read articles by the same author(s)

1 2 > >>